The EU circular economy action plans identify textiles as a key value-chain and will address them in the EU strategy 2022 EU for circular and sustainable textiles and EU sustainable product initiative. This briefing will help us to understand the European perspective on the environmental and climate effects of textiles and to identify design principles and measures that can increase circularity in textiles. It is supported by a report from EEA’s European Topic Centre of Circular Economy & Resource Use. Here.
1. Textiles are used in production, trade, and consumption
The EU economy is dependent on textiles. The EU textile and clothing industry had a turnover in 2019 of EUR162 billion. It employed over 1.5 million people in 160,000 businesses. As was the case in many other sectors, between 2019-2020, the COVID-19 economic and health crisis reduced turnover by 9% and 17% for textiles and clothing, respectively (Euratex, 2021).
In 2020, 6.9million tonnes of finished textile products was produced in the EU-27. The EU-27 produces carpets, household and other textiles. This includes non-woven textiles as well as technical and industrial textiles, ropes, fabrics, and technical and industrial textiles. The EU also produces intermediate products for textiles such as fibres and yarns. (Khler et. al., 2021).
The textiles industry is more labour-intensive than other sectors. Around 13 million workers employed in the supply chain to produce the textiles, clothing and footwear that was consumed in the EU-27’s 2020 budget were equivalent to full-time equivalents. This makes textiles the third most important sector in the world after food and housing. The majority of production is done in Asia, which has low production costs but also offers workers safety and health.
Textiles are highly internationalized. Europe is a major importer and exporter. In 2020, 8.7 Million tonnes of finished textile products worth EUR125 billion were imported into the EU-27. In terms of volume, clothing accounts for 45% of all imports. Household textiles and other textiles are second (Eurostat 2021a). The EU imports mainly from China and Turkey and exports mainly towards the United Kingdom, Switzerland, and the United States (Euratex 2020).
Consumption
European households consume large quantities of textile products. European households used large quantities of textile products in 2018 and 2019. They spent on average EUR600 on clothing, EUR150 per shoe, and EUR70 on household fabrics (Khler, 2021; Eurostat, 2021b).
The COVID-19 pandemic response involved stay-at home measures and the closing of shops and businesses. This resulted in a drop in textile production and decreased overall demand (Euratex 2021). In 2020, clothing and footwear consumption per person declined relative to 2019, while household textile consumption slightly increased. In 2020, the average textile consumption per person was 6.0kg of clothing and 6.1kg of household fabrics. Shoes were 2.7kg. (See Figure 1).
Figure 1. Figure 1.
Source: EEA and European Topic Centre on Resource Use and Circular Economy.
Other than the COVID-related decline in footwear consumption in 2020 (see Figure 2), the estimated clothing consumption and footwear consumption has remained relatively stable over the last decade. There were slight fluctuations between years. Similar to household textiles, the consumption was relatively stable with a slight increase in the past decade.
Figure 2. Figure 2.
Notification: Calculated as production+import-export.
Sources:EEA and European Topic Centre for Circular Economy and Resource Use, based upon Eurostat (2021a)..
More information…
Based on 2020 production and trade data, the total textile consumption was calculated at 15kg per person per annum. This includes, on average,:
- Clothing weighing 6.0kg
- 6.1kg household textiles
- 2.7kg footwear.
This amounts to a total European textile product consumption of 6.6 millions tonnes in 2020. Estimates of textile consumption are not reliable as they can vary from study to study and often use different calculation methods and scopes.
2. Textiles’ environmental and climate impacts
The environment and climate change are significantly affected by the production and consumption textiles. The production phase of natural fibres like hemp, cotton, and linen has significant environmental impacts. Use of land, water, fertilisers or pesticides as well as the production of synthetic fibers such elastane and polyester (e.g. ETC/WMGE, 2021b. Energy use, chemical fuelstock. Textile manufacturing requires large amounts of energy, water, and a variety chemicals across a variety production processes. Distribution and retail are responsible both for transport emissions as well as packaging waste.
Water and detergents are used for washing, drying, ironing, and maintenance. Emissions of chemicals and microfibres can also be found in the waste water. Textiles also contribute to substantial amounts of textile waste. Textiles end up as general waste at the end of their lives and are either incinerated or disposed of. Textile waste can be separated and sorted. Depending on its quality and material composition, they can be reused, recycled, or disposed off. In 2017, less than 1 percent of all textiles in the world were recycled into new products according to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017.
To show the magnitude of the effects of textile consumption upon raw material use, water use, and greenhouse gas emissions, we have updated our calculations for the EU’s life cycle climate and environmental impacts. Based on data from Eurostat and Exiobase, we used input-output modeling. The environmental impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 resulted in a decrease in textile consumption.
Use of raw materials
Textile production requires large quantities of raw materials. A total of 175,000,000 tonnes of primary raw material were required to produce all clothing, footwear, and household textiles bought by EU households in 2020. That’s 391kg per person. This 40% is attributed to clothes, 30% household textiles, 30% footwear. This makes textiles the fifth most consumed category in Europe in terms primary raw material use (see Figure 3)
Raw materials include all materials used in the production of natural and synthetic fibers, as well as chemicals and fertilisers. It also includes all building materials, metals, and minerals used in the construction of production plants. Also included are transport and retail of textile products. Only 20% of these raw materials are made or extracted in Europe. The rest are sourced from other countries. This demonstrates the global nature and dependence of European consumption on imported textiles. This means that around 80% of the environmental impact from Europe’s textile use is outside Europe. For example, the majority of cotton production, fibre production and garment building take place in Asia (ETC/WMGE 2019).
Figure 3. Figure 3.
Source: EEA and European Topic Centre for Circular Economy and Resource Use based on Exiobase v3.8.1.
More information…
Water use
The production and handling of textiles requires large amounts water. Water use is distinguished between blue water (surface or groundwater consumed during irrigation, industry processes, or household use) or green water (rainwater stored in the soil, usually used to grow crops). (Hoekstra and al., 2012).
To produce all clothing, footwear, and household textiles purchased in the EU in 2020, it was necessary to obtain approximately 4,000,000,000 m of bluewater. This amounts to 9m per person. Textiles water consumption ranks third after food and recreation, culture (see Figure 4)
A total of 20,000,000,000 m of green water were used, primarily for the production and sale of cotton. That’s 44m per person. Blue water is used in the production of clothing (40%), footwear (30%), and household and other textiles (30%). Most green water is used in the production of clothing (almost half), footwear (30%) and household textiles (30%). The largest consumption is cotton production.
Figure 4. Figure 4.
Source: EEA and European Topic Centre on Resource Use and Circular Economy, based on Exiobase v3.8.1.
More information…
The majority of textiles consumed in Europe are water-intensive. Producing 1kg of cotton takes approximately 10m of water, which is typically located outside of Europe (Chapagain and al., 2006).
Land use
The production of textiles, particularly natural textiles, takes a lot of land. The amount of land used in the supply chain for textiles purchased in Europe in 2020 is 180,000 km or 400m per individual. Only 8% of the land is used in Europe. More than 90% of land use impacts are outside Europe. This is mainly due to (cotton-based) fibre production in China (ETC/WMGE 2019, 2019). Lehmann et. al. (2018) also note that animal-based fibres such as wool have a significant impact on land use. This makes textiles the sector that has the greatest impact on land use after food and housing (see Figure 5) 43% of this is due to clothes, 35% goes to footwear (including leather-soled shoes), which have a high impact on land use because they require cattle pasture, and 23% to household and textiles.
Figure 5. Figure 5.
Source: EEA and European Topic Centre for Circular Economy and Resource Use based on Exiobase v3.8.1.
More information…
Greenhouse gas emissions
Textile production and consumption generate greenhouse gas emissions. These include resource extraction, production washing and drying, as well as waste incineration. In 2020, the EU’s textile industry generated greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to 121 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO).2e) or 270kg CO in total2e per person. This makes textiles the most important household consumption sector for climate change (see Figure 6). This is 50% of which is due to clothes, 30% to household textiles and other textiles, 20% to footwear. Although greenhouse gas emissions have a global impact, 75% of them are released in countries other than Europe, mainly in important textile-producing areas in Asia (ETC/WMGE 2019).
Figure 6. Figure 6.2e)
Source: EEA and European Topic Centre for Circular Economy and Resource Use based on Exiobase v3.8.1.
More information…
The production phase accounts for about 80% of all textiles’ climate change impacts. Another 3% is in distribution and retail, 14% during the use phase (washing and drying) and 3% at the end of life (collection and sorting, incineration, and disposal).
The climate impact of textiles made from natural fibres like cotton is generally the lowest. Synthetic fibres, especially nylon and acrylic, have a lower climate impact due to their fossil fuel origin and the energy used during production (ETC/WMGE 2021b; Beton and al., 2014).
3.Design as an enabler of circular businesses models for textiles
To reduce the climate and environmental impacts of textiles, it is essential to shift to circular business models. You will save on raw materials, energy, water, land use and emissions as well as your carbon footprint (ETC/WMGE 2019). Implementing and scaling up circular business models requires innovation in the technical, social, business, and economic aspects of business models.
Circular design is an important part of circular business models for textiles. It can lead to higher quality, longer lives, better material use, and better options for recycling. While recycling and reuse of materials is important, it is also important to design for durability, reuseability, repair, and remanufacturing. Product design should include strategies to prevent the release of toxic chemicals and limit toxic emissions.
Designing for circularity represents the latest development in sustainability design. This new development requires more discipline than traditional engineering design. Instead of focusing on technical and product-centric issues, it is important to consider large-scale system-level changes. The success of product design as a component in a circular business model is dependent on the consumer behavior and policy to realize its potential and allow implementation. Figure 7 shows the connections between the circular model, product design and consumer behavior. All of these are necessary to slow down and close off the loop, making it circular.
Figure 7. Figure 7.
Source: EEA and European Topic Centre for Circular Economy and Resource Use. Illustration by CSCP.
Below are examples of circular business model options that could support the transition to a circular textiles system. The circular business model should emphasize longevity and durability, optimised resource utilization, collection and use, recycling and material reuse, as well as optimising resource use.
Durability and longevity
The first step to circularity is to ensure that textile products last for many years. Increased durability allows for longer use and reuse, which in turn extends the life span of textiles. Fashion trends that are rapidly changing and lower quality products have reduced the clothes’ life span. The average garment is used seven to eight times per year over the past 20 years (Lujan Ornelas and colleagues, 2020; Ellen MacArthur Foundation 2017, respectively). This path requires a shift to circular businesses that support longer product life and more sustainable purchasing behaviors and lifestyles.
Careful selection of materials is key to textiles’ durability, longevity, and repairability. The materials used will determine how long the product can be used and how easy it can be repaired. There are several design principles that increase the durability of garments. These include technical requirements regarding colour fastness and fabric resistance. Practical requirements about clothes being multifunctional and suitable for their intended purpose, and whether or not there are repair kits and/or spare parts.
For product durability and longevity, circular design principles are important. 40% of reasons consumers throw out clothes are related to (functional) changes in garments (Laitala and al., 2015).
- A hole or tear
- Look worn out
- Loss of elasticity and/or shape
- Stains
- Color changing or fading.
In addition to creating durable and environmentally-friendly materials, it is important that consumers make behavioral changes. To counter fast-moving fashion trends and to provide product care information and offer repair services (e.g. In-store repair at retailers or partnerships with local shops. All aspects could play a significant role in fostering a consumer’s emotional connection with garments, and their appreciation of them.
To support longevity and durability, policies enablers are required in addition to behavioural and education enablers. These include eco-design requirements and harmonised extended producer liability schemes, economic instruments (such taxes on certain materials), and support for desirable production processes (ETC/WMGE 2019, 2021a, EuRIC, 2020, OECD 2017,).
Optimised resource use
The second is optimizing resource use to reduce pressures. The textiles industry is focusing on optimizing resource use to reduce water and energy consumption, air emissions, and pollution. They are using safe chemicals and diverse biodegradable materials. The circular economy transition has seen some sectors of the textile industry adopt business models that encourage ownership over access. Access-based business models can increase the use and reduce the use of textile waste while reducing the need for new materials (EEA, 2021; EETC/WMGE in 2021a).
Eco-design principles are used to optimize resource use at the production stage. These principles include reducing waste, emissions, and inputs, such as water and chemicals. They also include the production of fibres from renewable sources and/or recycled material. Design requirements that require a minimum amount of recycled material to be certified could help optimize resource use. Only 1% of textile waste can be recycled into new clothing fibres. The non-reusable portion is mostly used for industrial rags or upholstery filling, insulation, or incinerated. Design requirements could indirectly increase the collection of materials to be reused or recycled, and possibly bring new sorting streams and waste recovery streams.
Some companies offer clothing subscriptions, where customers pay a fee to rent a certain number of garments. Customers can change their wardrobe often without needing to purchase new clothes. Consumers need to see these business-to consumer models as viable alternatives to traditional shopping in order to fully realize their potential. It is important to assess the extent to which these models perpetuate the need for ever-changing clothes, and underpin unsustainable levels of production and consumption.
Many international certifications have helped to optimize resource usage. To decouple profit generation and resource use, other ownership models such as clothing subscriptions and leasing must be supported by policy. These policy enablers must support the successful adoption access-based business models, create regulations on ownership and transport of textiles (including waste streams), and promote regulatory incentives such as VAT reductions and extended producer responsibility.
CReuse and ollection
The third way in which design is involved is in the collection and resale of textiles. Circular business models based on the collection and resale are designed to extend textiles’ lives beyond their first users (EEA, 2021). According to a 2020 ING survey, only 20% of consumers buy used clothes. Online platforms for buying and selling clothes have become increasingly popular. Many brands and retailers offer take-back and pre-loved services. These alternative business models’ success depends on many factors, including brand image and the quality of the products (Hemkhaus, et al. 2019). Also, the product type can have an impact on the reuse potential. Baby and children’s clothes are generally only worn for a very short time, and are often sold in second-hand shops or online. In the same way, designer and vintage pieces as well as luxury brands are often sold for reuse (ETC/WMGE 2021a).
It is crucial to understand consumers’ attitudes and motivations regarding textile disposal in order to create collection and selling channels that work. Customers should be informed by companies about what happens to the textiles they collect. This encourages customers to participate and helps prevent corporate greenwashing. The risk is that increasing the number of used clothes could encourage more consumption of new materials, as consumers have less space in their wardrobes (ETC/WMGE 2021a; Khler and al.,2021).
To adopt circular business models that encourage reuse and collection, it is necessary to have specific regulations on the transport of and trade in collected textiles. To support investment in recycling, collection, and reuse capacities, there are several options. These include extended producer responsibility schemes, regulatory incentives, and targets.
Recycling and material reuse
The previous pathways focused on slowing the loop down, but this last pathway is about recycling and material reuse. This model reduces the use of resources and prolongs the life of textiles. It also allows for the closure the loop by recycling textiles and converting them into raw material for new textiles. Remanufacturing (also known as upcycling) and recycling can be used to reuse material at the fabric level. Both reduce the demand for virgin raw materials as well as textile waste generation (EEA 2021).
Despite all the interest from many stakeholders, the recyclability or textiles are not often considered in the design process (Watson, et al. 2017,). Because of certain functional needs (e.g. Stretchiness, aesthetic reasons (e.g. Use of layers or prints) or economic reasons (e.g. Mixing natural fibres with cheaper synthetic fibres is often a priority in design. This means that almost a third of textile waste is not suitable for fibre-to–fibre recycling (Khler and al., 2002). Textile products with buttons, zippers, and other accessories that are not removable are also difficult to recycle. Trims and accessories must be removed easily in order not to hinder recycling or create additional waste streams. Label textile products with the chemicals and materials they contain, and whether they are pure and/or mixed, should be done. Different input requirements for textile recycling processes mean that different labels should be used. This helps prevent toxic chemicals recirculating (Bauer and co., 2018); Ellen MacArthur Foundations, 2021; Khler, 2021).
It is not possible to design and make a product for recycling if the loop has been closed. Although figures are not available for all EU countries (Khler and al., 2002), the EU’s collection rate of used textiles varies from 4.5% in Latvia to 45.5% in the Netherlands. This means that most used clothing and household textiles are still disposed in mixed municipal waste streams. In 2025, the EU will require textile collection.
These are some possible areas to improve the textile recycling rate
- Policy support in the form tax incentives for textile products with recycled content
- Tax penalties for conventional products
- Extended producer responsibility programs
These policies would help to internalize the environmental costs of virgin fibers and give recycled fibres an economic advantage. This would encourage manufacturers and suppliers to design for recycling.
Refer to
B. Bauer, et. al., 2018, Potential ecodesign requirements in textiles and furniture, Nordic Council of Ministers. Copenhagen.
Beton, A., et al., 2014, Textiles have the potential to improve the environment (IMPRO Textiles).accessed 24/03/2020.
Chapagain A. K. et al. (2006), The water footprint for cotton consumption: An assessment of how global cotton products consumption affects water resources in cotton producing countries. Ecological Economics60(1). pp. 186-203 (DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2005.11.027).
ECOS, 2021, How ecodesign can make textiles more sustainable, repairable, and mainstreamECOS, accessed August 30, 2021.
EEA 2021, A framework to enable circular business models in Europe. EEA Briefing No 22/2020. European Environment Agency accessed 31/05/2021.
Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017, A new textiles economy: redesigning fashions futureEllen MacArthur Foundation, accessed 21/01/2022.
Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2021, Guidelines for redesigning jeans in 2021Ellen MacArthur Foundation, accessed 22 Sept 2021.
ETC/WMGE, 2019, In a circular economy textiles and the environmentEionet Report No 6/2019. European Topic Centre for Waste and Materials for a Green Economy. accessed 26 March 2020.
ETC/WMGE, 2021a, Circular economy business modelsEionet Report No.2/2021, European Topic Centre of Waste and Materials for a Green Economy. Accessed 26 November 2021.
ETC/WMGE, 2021b, Plastic in textiles: Potential for circularity and lower environmental and climate impactsEionet Report No. 1/2021, European Topic Centre for Waste and Materials in a Sustainable Economy, accessed 28 Apr 2021.
Euratex, 2020, Facts & key figures from the European textile & clothing industryaccessed 5 Jun 2021.
Euratex, 2021, 2021 must be a turning moment for the European clothing and textile industryEuropean Apparel and Textile Confederation. accessed 28 September 2021.
EuRIC, 2020, EuRIC position on EPR Schemes for Textiles, EuRIC, accessed 11 Jan 2022.
Eurostat, 2021a, CPA 2.1 (DS-1062396): EU trade since 1988Eurostat Data Explorer, accessed 21 Jan 2022.
Eurostat, 2021b, Final consumption expenditure of households by consumption goal (COICOP 3 Digits) (nama_10_co3_p3)Eurostat Data Explorer, accessed 21 Jan 2022.
Hemkhaus, M., et al., 2019, Circular economy in textile industry, Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), accessed 7 January 2022.
Hoekstra A. Y., et. al. (2012), The water footprint assessment manual Earthscan, London.
ING, 2020, Learn from customers: How shifting demands are shaping the companies’ circular economy transitionING, accessed 21 Sept 2021.
Khler, A., et al., 2021, Final report on circular economy in the EU textile industry:, Final Report, Publications Office of the European Union Luxembourg, accessed August 8, 2021.
Laitala, K., and others. (2015). Making clothing last: A design approach to reducing environmental impacts. International Journal of Design9(2). pp. 93-107.
Lehmann, M., et al., 2018, Pulse 2018: Fashion industry newsBoston Consulting Group and Global Fashion Agenda ()accessed 29 September 2021.
Lujan-Ornelas, C., et al., 2020, A life cycle thinking approach to analyse sustainability in the textile industry: a literature review, Sustainability12(23), p. 10193.
OECD, 2017, Learn from the experts about behavioral insights and public policy in the worldOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. accessed 21 January 2022.
stlund, A., et al., 2020, Investor brief: Sustainability in textiles and fashionMistra Dialogue, Stockholm. accessed 30 Aug 2021.
Pappas, E., 2021, Keep your clothes out of the landfill with the latest trendsHorizon The EU Research and Innovation Magazine accessed 7 January 2022.
Watson, D., and al., 2017, Stimulating textile to-textile recycling, Nordic Council of Ministers. Copenhagen.
Identifiers
Briefing no. 01/2022
Title:The role of design in Europe’s circular economy: Textiles and the Environment
HTML: TH-AM-22-001-EN-Q – ISBN: 978-92-9480-433-4 – ISSN: 2467-3196 – doi: 10.2800/006659
PDF: TH-AM-22-001-EN-N – ISBN: 978-92-9480-432-7 – ISSN: 2467-3196 – doi: 10.2800/578806